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Olea europaea

Common name:	Olive	Family:	Oleaceae
Author:	L.	Botanical references:	11, 50, 200
Synonyms:
Known Hazards:	None known
Range:	S. Europe - Mediterranean.
Habitat:	Woods and scrub in dry rocky places[50].
Edibility Rating (1-5):	3	Medicinal Rating (1-5):	3

Other Possible Synonyms:	From various places across the web, may not be correct. See below.
	O. europea[E] O. gallica[H] O. lancifolia[H] O. oleaster[H]
Other Common Names:	From various places around the Web, may not be correct. See below.
	Olive [P,B,H,E], Olivo [E], Zaytoon [E], Zeytin Agaci [E],
Epithets:	From a Dictionary of Botanical Epithets
	europaea = European
Systematics:	From a USDA Plants Database
	Order: Scrophulariales. Olive family
Other Range Info:	From the Ethnobotany Database
	Ei Europe France Iraq Jerusalem Spain Turkey Us(Nm)
Noxious, Invasive and Injurious Weeds	From USDA PLANTS database, Weeds Australia , DEFRA Injurious Weeds
	Listed as noxious/invasive for: New South Wales, South Australia.

Physical Characteristics

An evergreen tree growing to 10m by 8m at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 8. It is in leaf all year, in flower from August to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Wind. The plant is self-fertile. We rate it 3/5 for edibility and 3/5 for medicinal use.

The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils, requires well-drained soil and can grow in nutritionally poor soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought.

Habitats and Possible Locations

Woodland, Sunny Edge, By Walls, By South Wall, By West Wall.

Cultivar 'El Greco': Woodland, Secondary, Sunny Edge, Dappled Shade, By Walls, By South Wall, By West Wall.
Cultivar 'Mission': Woodland, Secondary, Sunny Edge, Dappled Shade, By Walls, By South Wall, By West Wall.

Edible Uses

Condiment Fruit Leaves Manna Oil.

Olive fruits are widely used, especially in the Mediterranean, as a relish and flavouring for foods. The fruit is usually pickled or cured with water, brine, oil, salt or lye[2, 3, 4, 89, 183]. They can also be dried in the sun and eaten without curing when they are called 'fachouilles'[183]. The cured fruits are eaten as a relish, stuffed with pimentos or almonds, or used in breads, soups, salads etc[183]. 'Olives schiacciate' are olives picked green, crushed, cured in oil and used as a salad[183]. The fruit contains 20 - 50µ vitamin D per 100g[74]. The fruit is up to 4cm long[200].
The seed is rich in an edible non-drying oil, this is used in salads and cooking and, because of its distinct flavour, is considered a condiment[4, 46, 57, 89, 171, 183]. There are various grades of the oil, the finest (known as 'Extra Virgin') is produced by cold pressing the seeds without using heat or chemical solvents[238]. The seed of unpalatable varieties is normally used and this oil has the lowest percentage of acidity and therefore the best flavour[238]. Other grades of the oil come from seeds that are heated (which enables more oil to be expressed but has a deleterious effect on the quality) or from using chemical solvents on seed that has already been pressed for higher grades of oil. Olive oil is mono-unsaturated and regular consumption is thought to reduce the risk of circulatory diseases[238]. The seed contains albumen, it is the only seed known to do this[7].
Leaves[2]. No more details are given.
An edible manna is obtained from the tree[183].

Medicinal Uses

Disclaimer

Antipruritic Antiseptic Astringent Bach Cholagogue Demulcent Emollient Febrifuge Hypoglycaemic Laxative Sedative.

The oil from the pericarp is cholagogue, a nourishing demulcent, emollient and laxative[4, 21, 240]. Eating the oil reduces gastric secretions and is therefore of benefit to patients suffering from hyperacidity[238]. The oil is also used internally as a laxative and to treat peptic ulcers[4, 238]. It is used externally to treat pruritis, the effects of stings or burns and as a vehicle for liniments[4, 21]. Used with alcohol it is a good hair tonic and used with oil of rosemary it is a good treatment for dandruff[4, 21]. The oil is also commonly used as a base for liniments and ointments[21].
The leaves are antiseptic, astringent, febrifuge and sedative[4, 21]. A decoction is used in treating obstinate fevers, they also have a tranquillising effect on nervous tension and hypertension[4, 238]. Experimentally, they have been shown to decrease blood sugar levels by 17 - 23%[240]. Externally, they are applied to abrasions[238].
The bark is astringent, bitter and febrifuge[4, 240]. It is said to be a substitute for quinine in the treatment of malaria[240].
In warm countries the bark exudes a gum-like substance that has been used as a vulnerary[4].
The plant is used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are 'Complete exhaustion' and 'Mental fatigue'[209].

We have a more details factsheet on the history and medicinal use of this plant. Email webmaster@pfaf.org for details.

Other Uses

Dye Hair Oil Soil stabilization Wood.

The non-drying oil obtained from the seed is also used for soap making, lighting and as a lubricant[21, 46, 89]. The oil is a good hair tonic and dandruff treatment[21].
Maroon and purple dyes are obtained from the whole fresh ripe fruits[168].
Blue and black dyes are obtained from the skins of fresh ripe fruits[168].
A yellow/green dye is obtained from the leaves[168].
Plants are used to stabilize dry dusty hillsides[200].
Wood - very hard, heavy, beautifully grained, takes a fine polish and is slightly fragrant. It is used in turnery and cabinet making, being much valued by woodworkers[4, 7, 46, 100].

Cultivation details

Easily grown in a loamy soil[1] and tolerating infertile soils[200], it prefers a well-drained deep fertile soil[200]. A drought resistant plant once established, it succeeds in dry soils[200]. Requires a sunny position[3]. Tolerates salty air[59]. Plants are slow-growing and very long-lived[188].
The olive is very commonly cultivated in Mediterranean climates for its edible seed, there are many named varieties[132, 183]. Trees can produce a crop when they are 6 years old and continue producing a commercial yield for the next 50 years[200] - many trees continue to give good yields for hundreds of years, even when their trunk is hollow[4]. They succeed outdoors in the milder areas of Britain[11], though plants rarely produce fruit when grown in this country[4, 182, 200], preferring warm temperate regions with mild moist winters and hot dry summers[200]. Some reports say that trees often fruit in south-western England[11, 59]. Generally, older trees are hardy to about -10° c[3, 200]. They require the protection of a south facing wall when grown in the London area[11].
At least some cultivars are self-fertile[200]. Some cultivars have been selected mainly for their fruits whilst others have been selected for their oil[200]. 'Mission' is grown for its edible fruits. It is vigorous, prolific and very cold resistant[200]. 'Moraiolo' is grown for its oil, it is very hardy and strong-growing[200].
Flower production depends on a 12 - 15 week period of diurnally fluctuating temperatures with at least 2 months averaging below 10° c[200].
Pruning can encourage non-fruiting water-shoots[200]. Weighing down or arching the branches can encourage fruiting[200]. The plants fruit best on wood that is one year old so any pruning should take this into account[238].
An olive branch is a traditional symbol of peace[148], laurel leaves were used by the ancient Greeks to crown winners of the Olympic games[4].
Plants have male flowers and bisexual flowers[200].

Propagation

Seed - sow late winter in a shady position in a greenhouse[78]. Home produced seed should be given a period of cold stratification first[78]. Where possible, it is best to sow the seed as soon as it is ripe in a greenhouse in the autumn. Prick out the seedlings into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in the greenhouse for at least their first winter, perhaps for their first 2 - 3 winters. Plant them out into their permanent positions in early summer and give them some protection from winter cold for at least their first winter outdoors[K].
Cuttings of half-ripe wood, 5 - 10cm with a heel, July/August in a frame. Good percentage[78].

Cultivars

'Moraiolo': Grown mainly for the oil obtained from its fruit, this cultivar is very hardy and strong-growing[200].
'Mission': The medium-size oval fruit is freestone, it has a firm but very bitter flesh and ripens rather late[183]. It is good for pickling and for oil[183]. It is of average oil content and is widely grown for producing cold-pressed olive oil[183]. A vigorous, prolific and very cold resistant cultivar[200], tolerating lower temperatures than most other cultivars[183].
'El Greco': This is the cultivar most commonly available in Britain[K]. It has been selected for its heavy and reliable cropping and good oil content. One of the earliest bearing olives, it produces good-size small stoned fruits[183].

Suppliers

For more details of plant suppliers please see our Suppliers Page which lists many more places to look.

PFAF Web Pages

This plant is mentioned in the following web pages

Web References

Details of Medicinal Uses, Habitats, etc. in M. Grieve A Modern Herbal (1931) [4]
[H] Details of Scandanavian and European Common names in Henriette's names database
[E] Ethnobotany Data (common names, uses, countries) from the Ethnobotany Database.
[V] Images from the Vascular Plant Image Gallery of the Texas A& M Bioinformatics Working Group.
[B] Data (Latin & Common names, other references) from the BONAP's Synonymized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
[G] Data (Common Names, Uses, Distribution) from the USDA/ARS NPGS's GRIN taxonomic database.
[C] Taxon data. from the CalFlora database.
[P] Data. (uses, distribution, wetland) from the USDA'a Plants database.
[HP] Links, Photos, Suppliers from Hortiplex Plant Database

References for Olea europea (a possible synonym).

[E] Ethnobotany Data (common names, uses, countries) from the Ethnobotany Database.

References for the family Oleaceae.

[CHINA] Data Very detailed botanical/identification info. from the Flora of China.

See the PFAF Links Pages for other sources.

Also try Photos and info from the The Plants Database which has 14,000 images.

References

[K] Ken Fern
Notes from observations, tasting etc at Plants For A Future and on field trips.

[1] F. Chittendon. RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement. 1956 Oxford University Press 1951
Comprehensive listing of species and how to grow them. Somewhat outdated, it has been replaces in 1992 by a new dictionary (see [200]).

[2] Hedrick. U. P. Sturtevant's Edible Plants of the World. Dover Publications 1972 ISBN 0-486-20459-6
Lots of entries, quite a lot of information in most entries and references.

[3] Simmons. A. E. Growing Unusual Fruit. David and Charles 1972 ISBN 0-7153-5531-7
A very readable book with information on about 100 species that can be grown in Britain (some in greenhouses) and details on how to grow and use them.

[4] Grieve. A Modern Herbal. Penguin 1984 ISBN 0-14-046-440-9
Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.

[7] Chiej. R. Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald 1984 ISBN 0-356-10541-5
Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.

[11] Bean. W. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement. Murray 1981
A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.

[21] Lust. J. The Herb Book. Bantam books 1983 ISBN 0-553-23827-2
Lots of information tightly crammed into a fairly small book.

[46] Uphof. J. C. Th. Dictionary of Economic Plants. Weinheim 1959
An excellent and very comprehensive guide but it only gives very short descriptions of the uses without any details of how to utilize the plants. Not for the casual reader.

[50] ? Flora Europaea Cambridge University Press 1964
An immense work in 6 volumes (including the index). The standard reference flora for europe, it is very terse though and with very little extra information. Not for the casual reader.

[57] Schery. R. W. Plants for Man.
Fairly readable but not very comprehensive. Deals with plants from around the world.

[59] Thurston. Trees and Shrubs in &ndndndnd.
Trees and shrubs that succeed in &ndndndnd based on the authors own observations. Good but rather dated.

[74] Komarov. V. L. Flora of the USSR. Israel Program for Scientific Translation 1968
An immense (25 or more large volumes) and not yet completed translation of the Russian flora. Full of information on plant uses and habitats but heavy going for casual readers.

[78] Sheat. W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. MacMillan and Co 1948
A bit dated but a good book on propagation techniques with specific details for a wide range of plants.

[89] Polunin. O. and Huxley. A. Flowers of the Mediterranean. Hogarth Press 1987 ISBN 0-7012-0784-1
A very readable pocket flora that is well illustrated. Gives some information on plant uses.

[100] Polunin. O. Flowers of Europe - A Field Guide. Oxford University Press 1969 ISBN 0192176218
An excellent and well illustrated pocket guide for those with very large pockets. Also gives some details on plant uses.

[132] Bianchini. F., Corbetta. F. and Pistoia. M. Fruits of the Earth.
Lovely pictures, a very readable book.

[148] Niebuhr. A. D. Herbs of Greece. Herb Society of America. 1970
A pleasant little book about Greek herbs.

[168] Grae. I. Nature's Colors - Dyes from Plants. MacMillan Publishing Co. New York. 1974 ISBN 0-02-544950-8
A very good and readable book on dyeing.

[171] Hill. A. F. Economic Botany. The Maple Press 1952
Not very comprehensive, but it is quite readable and goes into some a bit of detail about the plants it does cover.

[182] Thomas. G. S. Ornamental Shrubs, Climbers and Bamboos. Murray 1992 ISBN 0-7195-5043-2
Contains a wide range of plants with a brief description, mainly of their ornamental value but also usually of cultivation details and varieties.

[183] Facciola. S. Cornucopia - A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications 1990 ISBN 0-9628087-0-9
Excellent. Contains a very wide range of conventional and unconventional food plants (including tropical) and where they can be obtained (mainly N. American nurseries but also research institutes and a lot of other nurseries from around the world.

[188] Brickell. C. The RHS Gardener's Encyclopedia of Plants and Flowers Dorling Kindersley Publishers Ltd. 1990 ISBN 0-86318-386-7
Excellent range of photographs, some cultivation details but very little information on plant uses.

[200] Huxley. A. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. MacMillan Press 1992 ISBN 0-333-47494-5
Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.

[209] Chancellor. P. M. Handbook of the Bach Flower Remedies C. W. Daniel Co. Ltd. 1985 ISBN 85207 002 0
Details the 38 remedies plus how and where to prescribe them.

[238] Bown. D. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-020-31
A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.

[240] Chopra. R. N., Nayar. S. L. and Chopra. I. C. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Including the Supplement). Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 1986
Very terse details of medicinal uses of plants with a wide range of references and details of research into the plants chemistry. Not for the casual reader.

Readers Comments

Vegtable Oils

Pedro Carlos M. da C. Alves (pedrocarlos@aeiou.pt) Mon Feb 26 17:58:02 2001

Hello there!

I'm Portuguese Agroindustrial Eng. student. I love plants, hate polution and I prefer Vegetarian food.

I've one comment about VEGETABLE OILS: why aren't there the most healthy of ALL VEGETABLE OILS - those that are obtained from fruits: like OLIVE OIL, PALM OIL and DENDEM OIL?!

Bye! Pedro

Cross references: Plants: Olea europea. Genera: Olea. Web-pages: Vegtable Oils.

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