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Linum usitatissimum

Common name: Flax Family: Linaceae
Author: L. Botanical references: 200
Synonyms:  
Known Hazards: The seed of some strains contain cyanogenic glycosides in the seed though the toxicity is low, especially if the seed is eaten slowly. It becomes more toxic if water is drunk at the same time[76, 222]. The cyanogenic glycosides are also present in other parts of the plant and have caused poisoning to livestock[240].
Range: Possibly native to Europe. A rare casual in Britain, the original habitat is obscure.
Habitat: Not known in the wild.
Edibility Rating (1-5): 4Medicinal Rating (1-5):3

Other Possible Synonyms:From various places across the web, may not be correct. See below.
L. crepitans[G] L. humile[B,G,P] L. usitatissimum subsp. transitorium[G] L. usitatissimum var. humile[B,G,P]
Other Common Names:From various places around the Web, may not be correct. See below.
Ama [E], Annual Flax [H], Chih Ma [E], Common Flax [P,H,L], Cultivated Flax [B], Flax [H,S,MS,E,L], Flax, Common [S], Hu Ma [E], Kahtan [E], Keten [E], Kettan [E], Kittan [E], Lin [E], Linaza [E], Lino [E], Linseed [E,H], Linseed Flax [H], Vlas [D],
Epithets:From a Dictionary of Botanical Epithets
usitatissimum = most useful;
Systematics:From a USDA Plants Database
Order: Linales. Flax family
Other Range Info: From the Ethnobotany Database
Belgium; Britain; China; Egypt; Ei; Germany; India; India(Santal); Iraq; Kurdistan; Mexico; Peru; Spain; Turkey; Us; Us(Amerindian); Us(Pa); Venezuela

Physical Characteristics

Annual growing to 0.7m by 0.2m . It is hardy to zone 4 and is not frost tender. It is in flower from June to July, and the seeds ripen from August to September. The flowers are hermaphrodite (have both male and female organs) and are pollinated by Insects. The plant is self-fertile. We rate it 4/5 for edibility and 3/5 for medicinal use.

The plant prefers light (sandy) and medium (loamy) soils and requires well-drained soil. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils. It cannot grow in the shade. It requires moist soil. The plant can tolerates strong winds but not maritime exposure.

Habitats and Possible Locations

Cultivated Beds.

Cultivar 'Foster': Cultivated Beds.

Edible Uses

Coffee; Oil; Seed.

Seed - raw or cooked[61]. The seed contains 30 - 40% oil, which comprises mainly linoleic and linolenic acids[238]. The seed also contains cyanogenic glycosides (prussic acid). In small quantities these glycosides stimulate respiration and improve digestion, but in excess can cause respiratory failure and death[238]. Cultivars low in these glycosides have been developed and large quantities of the seed would need to be eaten to achieve a harmful dose. The seed is used in breads and cereals, it can also be sprouted and used in salads[183]. The seed is hard to digest and provokes flatulence[4]. A nutritional analysis is available[218].
The roasted seed is said to be a coffee substitute[183].
A herbal tea can be brewed from the seed[183].
An edible oil is obtained from the seed[183, 269], though it needs to be properly refined before it can be eaten. Some caution is advised in the use of the seeds for food since some varieties of this plant contain toxins.

Composition

Seed (Fresh weight)
In grammes per 100g weight of food:
Water: 6.5 Calories: 498 Protein: 19 Fat: 35.5 Carbohydrate: 35.4 Fibre: 6.8 Ash: 3.5
In milligrammes per 100g weight of food:
Calcium: 220 Phosphorus: 415 Iron: 23 VitaminA: 0.03 Thiamine: 0.17 Riboflavin: 0.16 Niacin: 1.4
Source: [218]
Notes : The figures given here are the median of a range given in the report. Iron had an especially large range, from 2.7 - 43.8.

Medicinal Uses

Disclaimer

Analgesic; Cancer; Cardiotonic; Demulcent; Emollient; Expectorant; Laxative; Nervine; Pectoral; Resolvent; VD.

Linseed has a long history of medicinal use, its main effects being as a laxative and expectorant that soothes irritated tissues, controls coughing and relieves pain[238]. The seed, or the oil from the seed are normally used[238].
The seed is analgesic, demulcent, emollient, laxative, pectoral and resolvent[4, 9, 21, 46, 165, 218, 240]. The crushed seed makes a very useful poultice in the treatment of ulceration, abscesses and deep-seated inflammations[4, 244]. An infusion of the seed contains a good deal of mucilage and is a valuable domestic remedy for coughs, colds and inflammation of the urinary organs[4]. If the seed is bruised and then eaten straight away, it will swell considerably in the digestive tract and stimulate peristalsis[9] and so is used in the treatment of chronic constipation[238].
The oil in the seed contains 4% L-glutamic acid, which is used to treat mental deficiencies in adults[218]. It also has soothing and lubricating properties, and is used in medicines to soothe tonsillitis, sore throats, coughs, colds, constipation, gravel and stones[4, 244]. When mixed with an equal quantity of lime water it is used to treat burns and scalds[244].
The bark and the leaves are used in the treatment of gonorrhoea[240].
The flowers are cardiotonic and nervine[240].
The plant has a long history of folk use in the treatment of cancer[218]. It has been found to contain various anticancer agents[218].

We have a more details factsheet on the history and medicinal use of this plant. Email webmaster@pfaf.org for details.

Other Uses

Biomass; Fibre; Gum; Insulation; Oil; Size.

A fibre is obtained from the stem[6, 7, 13, 57, 89]. It is of very high quality and is used in making cloth, sails, nets, paper, insulating material etc.The best quality flax fibre is used for making cloth. It is soft, lustrous and flexible, although not so flexible or elastic as cotton or wool[269].. It is stronger than cotton, rayon or wool, but weaker than ramie[269]. Lower quality fibre is used in manufacturing of towelling, matting, rugs, twines, canvas, bags, and for quality papers such as printing currency notes[269]. The plant is harvested just after it flowers[115]. The yield is 0.5 to 0.9 tonnes of fibre per hectare. When used for paper making, the stems are harvested in late summer or autumn when they are two thirds yellow and are then retted[189]. The fibre is then stripped from the stem, cooked for two hours or more with lye and then beaten in a Hollander beater[189].
The lower quality flax straw from seed flax varieties is used in the manufacture of upholstery tow, insulating material, rugs, twine, and paper. Some of the better quality straw is used in the manufacture of cigarette and other high-grade papers[269].
The seed contains 38 - 40% of a drying oil[141]. It has a very wide range of applications. The paint and varnish industries consume about 80% of all the linseed oil produced. The remainder is used in items such as furniture polish, enamels, linoleum, oilcloth, printer's inks, soap making and patent leather[46, 57, 169, 244, 269]. It is also used as a wood preservative and as a waterproofing for raincoats, slickers, and tarpaulins[269]. The oil is also used in a spray on concrete roads to prevent ice and snow from sticking - it has the additional benefit of helping to preserve the concrete and prevent surface cracking and wear[269]. Yields of over 4 tonnes of seed per hectare have been recorded in N. America, but yields of 2 tonnes or less are more common[269].
A mucilage from the soaked or boiled seeds is used as a size for linen warps[169].

Cultivation details

Prefers a light well-drained moderately fertile humus-rich soil in a sunny sheltered position[200]. Plants grow best in a well-drained, loamy soil, those overlying a clay subsoil produce the best results[269]. They prefer a pH in the range of 5 - 7[269]. Very light highly fertile soils are not desirable as they produce tall rank growth tending to lodge[269]. Plants are more sensitive to salt than most field crops[269]. Prefers a cool moist climate during the growing season, dry weather making the plants short and woody[61, 269]. A very greedy plant, depleting the soil[4, 123] and requiring a rich, well prepared soil if it is to do well[123]. Plants help to break up organic matter and prepare the soil for following crops[201]. Cultivars selected for seed production succeed under a fairly wide range of conditions, but those selected for fibre production require abundant moisture and cool weather during the growing season, and warm dry weather during harvesting, especially where water-retting is practiced[269].
The crop requires 15 - 20cm of rainfall if spread evenly over growing season, with 2.5 cm falling just before or after planting[269]. The plant needs a relatively long ripening period between flowering and harvesting. Warm, dry weather is desirable at the heading stage to cause plants to branch and produce seed; after vegetative growth, dry weather is required for curing the seed[269].
Linseed has a very long history of cultivation in temperate climates with evidence to show that it was being grown in Egypt over 5,000 years ago[269]. It fell into almost complete disuse in Britain in the 20th century as artificial fibres were increasingly used, but it is once again coming into prominence both as a fibre and as an oilseed crop(1995)[K]. Linseed is grown for its edible seed, the oil from the seed and for the fibres obtained from the stems[46]. There are many named varieties, though these usually fall within with two classes. One class, generally known as flax, does not branch much and is grown mainly for the fibre in its stem, whilst the other class, known as linseed, branches much more freely and is grown mainly for its seed. Although classified as a species, linseed is possibly an ancient cultigen derived in cultivation from L. bienne[17, 238].
Flax crops take 3 - 4 months to reach maturity, though autumn or early spring sown crops can take 6 - 7 months[269].
Lolium specis (Rye grasses) and Phleum species (Timothy grass) have allelopathic effects on Linum, reducing its carbohydrate synthesis[269]. Linseed is a good companion plant for potatoes and carrots but is inhibited by Camelina sativa[18, 20].

Propagation

Seed - sow early to late spring in situ. Do not transplant the seedlings[238].

Cultivars

'Foster'
The golden-yellow seeds have a mild flavour and are used for culinary purposes and for making oil - they are a sesame seed substitute[183].

Suppliers

For more details of plant suppliers please see our Suppliers Page which lists many more places to look.

Web References

References for linum usitatissimum (a possible synonym).

References for the family Linaceae.

See the PFAF Links Pages for other sources.

Also try Photos and info from the The Plants Database which has 14,000 images.

References

[K] Ken Fern
Notes from observations, tasting etc at Plants For A Future and on field trips.

[4] Grieve. A Modern Herbal. Penguin 1984 ISBN 0-14-046-440-9
Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.

[6] Mabey. R. Plants with a Purpose. Fontana 1979 ISBN 0-00-635555-2
Details on some of the useful wild plants of Britain. Poor on pictures but otherwise very good.

[7] Chiej. R. Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald 1984 ISBN 0-356-10541-5
Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.

[9] Launert. E. Edible and Medicinal Plants. Hamlyn 1981 ISBN 0-600-37216-2
Covers plants in Europe. a drawing of each plant, quite a bit of interesting information.

[13] Triska. Dr. Hamlyn Encyclopaedia of Plants. Hamlyn 1975 ISBN 0-600-33545-3
Very interesting reading, giving some details of plant uses and quite a lot of folk-lore.

[17] Clapham, Tootin and Warburg. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press 1962
A very comprehensive flora, the standard reference book but it has no pictures.

[18] Philbrick H. and Gregg R. B. Companion Plants. Watkins 1979
Details of beneficial and antagonistic relationships between neighbouring plants.

[20] Riotte. L. Companion Planting for Successful Gardening. Garden Way, Vermont, USA. 1978 ISBN 0-88266-064-0
Fairly good.

[21] Lust. J. The Herb Book. Bantam books 1983 ISBN 0-553-23827-2
Lots of information tightly crammed into a fairly small book.

[46] Uphof. J. C. Th. Dictionary of Economic Plants. Weinheim 1959
An excellent and very comprehensive guide but it only gives very short descriptions of the uses without any details of how to utilize the plants. Not for the casual reader.

[57] Schery. R. W. Plants for Man.
Fairly readable but not very comprehensive. Deals with plants from around the world.

[61] Usher. G. A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man. Constable 1974 ISBN 0094579202
Forget the sexist title, this is one of the best books on the subject. Lists a very extensive range of useful plants from around the world with very brief details of the uses. Not for the casual reader.

[76] Cooper. M. and Johnson. A. Poisonous Plants in Britain and their Effects on Animals and Man. HMSO 1984 ISBN 0112425291
Concentrates mainly on the effects of poisonous plants to livestock.

[89] Polunin. O. and Huxley. A. Flowers of the Mediterranean. Hogarth Press 1987 ISBN 0-7012-0784-1
A very readable pocket flora that is well illustrated. Gives some information on plant uses.

[115] Johnson. C. P. The Useful Plants of Great Britain.
Written about a hundred years ago, but still a very good guide to the useful plants of Britain.

[123] ? Encyclopaedia Britannica. 15th edition.
It contains a few things of interest to the plant project.

[141] Carruthers. S. P. (Editor) Alternative Enterprises for Agriculture in the UK. Centre for Agricultural Strategy, Univ. of Reading 1986 ISBN 0704909820
Some suggested alternative commercial crops for Britain. Readable. Produced by a University study group.

[165] Mills. S. Y. The Dictionary of Modern Herbalism.
An excellent small herbal.

[169] Buchanan. R. A Weavers Garden.
Covers all aspects of growing your own clothes, from fibre plants to dyes.

[183] Facciola. S. Cornucopia - A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications 1990 ISBN 0-9628087-0-9
Excellent. Contains a very wide range of conventional and unconventional food plants (including tropical) and where they can be obtained (mainly N. American nurseries but also research institutes and a lot of other nurseries from around the world.

[189] Bell. L. A. Plant Fibres for Papermaking. Liliaceae Press 1988
A good practical section on how to make paper on a small scale plus details of about 75 species (quite a few of them tropical) that can be used.

[200] Huxley. A. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. MacMillan Press 1992 ISBN 0-333-47494-5
Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.

[201] Allardice.P. A - Z of Companion Planting. Cassell Publishers Ltd. 1993 ISBN 0-304-34324-2
A well produced and very readable book.

[218] Duke. J. A. and Ayensu. E. S. Medicinal Plants of China Reference Publications, Inc. 1985 ISBN 0-917256-20-4
Details of over 1,200 medicinal plants of China and brief details of their uses. Often includes an analysis, or at least a list of constituents. Heavy going if you are not into the subject.

[222] Foster. S. & Duke. J. A. A Field Guide to Medicinal Plants. Eastern and Central N. America. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1990 ISBN 0395467225
A concise book dealing with almost 500 species. A line drawing of each plant is included plus colour photographs of about 100 species. Very good as a field guide, it only gives brief details about the plants medicinal properties.

[238] Bown. D. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-020-31
A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.

[240] Chopra. R. N., Nayar. S. L. and Chopra. I. C. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants (Including the Supplement). Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 1986
Very terse details of medicinal uses of plants with a wide range of references and details of research into the plants chemistry. Not for the casual reader.

[244] Phillips. R. & Foy. N. Herbs Pan Books Ltd. London. 1990 ISBN 0-330-30725-8
Deals with all types of herbs including medicinal, culinary, scented and dye plants. Excellent photographs with quite good information on each plant.

[269] Duke. J. Handbook of Energy Crops - 1983
Published only on the Internet, excellent information on a wide range of plants.

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Bibliography

Plant information taken from the Plants For A Future - Species Database. Copyright (c) 1997-2003.
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