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Ilex aquifolium

Common name:	Holly	Family:	Aquifoliaceae
Author:	L.	Botanical references:	11, 17, 200
Synonyms:	Ilex balearica (Desf.)
Known Hazards:	The fruit and probaby other parts of the plant contain saponins and are toxic, causing diarrhoea, vomiting and stupor[10, 274]. However, toxicity levels are low and it is only in very large doses that problems are likely to arise[65, 76].
Range:	Western and central Europe, including Britain, from Norway to Germany south to the Mediterranean.
Habitat:	Found in most well-drained soils in scrub, hedges and woodland where it is often the dominant under-storey shrub[7].
Edibility Rating (1-5):	3	Medicinal Rating (1-5):	2

Other Possible Synonyms:	From various places across the web, may not be correct. See below.
	I. aquifolium f. bacciflava[G] I. aquifolium f. ferox[G] I. aquifolium f. heterophylla[G] I. aquifolium f. integrifolia[G] I. aquifolium f. pendula[G]
Other Common Names:	From various places around the Web, may not be correct. See below.
	Acebo [E], Acebo Comun [E], Christ's Thorn [H], Cobanpuskulu [E], English Holly [P,B], European Holly [E], Holly [H,E], Holm [H], Holme Chase [H], Holy Tree [H], Houx [E], Hulm [H], Hulst [D], Hulver Bush [H],
Epithets:	From a Dictionary of Botanical Epithets
	aquifolium = holly like
Systematics:	From a USDA Plants Database
	Order: Celastrales. Holly family
Other Range Info:	From the Ethnobotany Database
	Britain Europe Spain Turkey
Noxious, Invasive and Injurious Weeds	From USDA PLANTS database, Weeds Australia , DEFRA Injurious Weeds
	Listed as noxious/invasive for: USA Invasive.

Physical Characteristics

An evergreen shrub growing to 9m by 5m at a slow rate. It is hardy to zone 6 and is frost tender. It is in leaf all year, in flower from May to June, and the seeds ripen from November to March. The scented flowers are dioecious (individual flowers are either male or female, but only one sex is to be found on any one plant so both male and female plants must be grown if seed is required) and are pollinated by Bees. The plant not is self-fertile. It is noted for attracting wildlife. We rate it 3/5 for edibility and 2/5 for medicinal use.

The plant prefers light (sandy), medium (loamy) and heavy (clay) soils and can grow in heavy clay and nutritionally poor soils. The plant prefers acid, neutral and basic (alkaline) soils and can grow in very acid soil. It can grow in full shade (deep woodland) semi-shade (light woodland) or no shade. It requires dry or moist soil and can tolerate drought. The plant can tolerate maritime exposure. It can tolerate atmospheric pollution.

Habitats and Possible Locations

Hedge, Woodland, Secondary, Sunny Edge, Dappled Shade, Shady Edge, Deep Shade, Ground Cover.

Edible Uses

Tea.

The leaves have been used as a tea substitute[4].
The roasted fruit has been used as a coffee substitute[7]. Some caution is advised here, since the fruit can be purgative and emetic[K].

Medicinal Uses

Disclaimer

Astringent Bach Diaphoretic Diuretic Emetic Expectorant Febrifuge Purgative.

Holly is little used in modern herbalism. The leaves are diaphoretic, expectorant, febrifuge and tonic[4, 9, 21]. They can be use fresh at almost any time of the year or can be harvested in late spring and dried for later use[4, 9]. They are used in the treatment of intermittent fevers, rheumatism, catarrh, pleurisy etc[4, 238, 254]. The juice of the fresh leaves has been successfully used in the treatment of jaundice[4].
The berries are violently emetic and purgative[4, 7]. They have been used in the treatment of dropsy and as a powder they have been used as an astringent to check bleeding[4]. The berries are toxic, especially to children, and should not be used medicinally except under professional supervision[254].
The root has been used as a diuretic, though there are more effective diuretics available[7].
The plant is used in Bach flower remedies - the keywords for prescribing it are 'Hatred', 'Envy', 'Jealousy' and 'Suspicion'[209].

Other Uses

Fuel Ground cover Hedge Wood.

An excellent hedge plant, tolerating hard clipping and maritime exposure and forming a dense stock-proof shelter[4, 11, 29, 75, 186]. Plants are fairly slow growing however[11].
The cultivar 'Pendula' makes a very good carpeting ground cover plant when grown as a cutting on its own roots[208]. It can be planted up to 1.2 metres apart each way, but is fairly slow to cover the ground[208].
Wood - strong, hard and dense, it polishes well, though it must be well dried and seasoned or else it warps badly. It is beautifully white, except at the centre of very old trees, and is highly regarded by cabinet makers though it must be well seasoned[4, 7, 46, 61]. The heartwood of mature trees is used for printing blocks, engravings, turnery etc[11, 115]. The wood makes a good fuel, burning well even when green[6].

Cultivation details

Succeeds in most soils, including peat, chalk, gravels, sand and shales[186], so long as they are not water-logged, though wild plants are occasionally found in situations with standing winter water[186]. Grows well in heavy clay soils[186]. Established plants are fairly drought tolerant[186]. Dislikes dry soils according to one report[31] whilst another says that it succeeds in dry shade[188]. Tolerates a pH range from 3.5 to 7.2[186]. Succeeds in full sun or fairly dense shade[17, 28, 31], self-sown seedlings from woods and shady places making the most shade tolerant plants[28]. Tolerant of maritime exposure[75] though in such a situation it may lose some or all its leaves in the winter[186].
Plants require a minimum July temperature of 12° c for good fruit production[186]. They tolerate short periods in winter down to -15° c[184]. Severe frosts can kill whole branches, especially if they are open to the sky[186]. The young growth in spring can be damaged by late frosts.
A very ornamental plant, there are many named varieties[182]. Flowers and fruits are formed on wood of the previous year's growth[229]. A good bee plant[108], the minute flowers are sweetly scented[245]. The fruit is a valuable winter food source for birds.
Resents root disturbance, especially as the plants get older[11]. It is best to place the plants into their permanent positions as soon as possible, perhaps giving some winter protection for their first year or two[K]. Only move the plants in May or, preferably, in September[1].
Plants are quite slow growing, even when in good soils and situations[11, 75].
Trees are usually dioecious but hermaphrodite forms are available. Male and female plants must usually be grown if seed is required.
Plants are capable of regenerating from the main stem both above and below ground level and, although the top may be killed in a fire, the plants will usually regrow from the base[186].
Rabbits are particularly fond of this species and will quickly remove the bark.
This species is notably resistant to honey fungus[200].

Propagation

Seed - best sown as soon as it is ripe in the autumn in a cold frame. It can take 18 months to germinate. Stored seed generally requires two winters and a summer before it will germinate and should be sown as soon as possible in a cold frame. Scarification, followed by a warm stratification and then a cold stratification may speed up the germination time[78, 80]. The seedlings are rather slow-growing. Pot them up into individual pots when they are large enough to handle and grow them on in light shade in a cold frame for their first year. It is possible to plant them out into a nursery bed in late spring of the following year, but they should not be left here for more than two years since they do not like being transplanted. Alternatively, grow them on in their pots for a second season and then plant them out into their permanent positions in late spring or early summer. Give them a good mulch and some protection for their first winter outdoors.
Cuttings of almost ripe wood with a heel, August in a shaded position in a cold frame. Leave for 12 months before potting up.
Layering in October. Takes 2 years.

Scent

Flowers: Fresh: The minute flowers are sweetly scented.

Cultivars

'Pendula': A female form with a pendulous habit, it makes a very good carpeting ground cover plant when grown as a cutting on its own roots[208]. It can be planted up to 1.2 metres apart each way, but is fairly slow to cover the ground[208].

Suppliers

Plants For A Future is working with the following groups to try and make these plants easily available. Parts of the proceeds will be donated to so please mention us when ordering.

Wildwood Nurseries: Lower Manor Cottage
Thornbury
Holsworthy
Devon
EX22 7DD
Email: lorna@macace.co.uk
Phone 01409 261324 Fax 01409 261324
Distribution: UK
How to order: Direct from Wildwood by email/phone
Last Updated: March 03
Item: Ilex aquifoliaceae (common holly)

For more details of plant suppliers please see our Suppliers Page which lists many more places to look.

PFAF Web Pages

This plant is mentioned in the following web pages

Web References

Details of Medicinal Uses, Habitats, etc. in M. Grieve A Modern Herbal (1931) [4]
[H] Details of Scandanavian and European Common names in Henriette's names database
[E] Ethnobotany Data (common names, uses, countries) from the Ethnobotany Database.
[V] Images from the Vascular Plant Image Gallery of the Texas A& M Bioinformatics Working Group.
[B] Data (Latin & Common names, other references) from the BONAP's Synonymized Checklist of the Vascular Flora of the United States, Puerto Rico, and the Virgin Islands.
[G] Data (Common Names, Uses, Distribution) from the USDA/ARS NPGS's GRIN taxonomic database.
[C] Taxon data. from the CalFlora database.
[P] Data. (uses, distribution, wetland) from the USDA'a Plants database.
[HP] Links, Photos, Suppliers from Hortiplex Plant Database

References for the family Aquifoliaceae.

To be included in the Flora of China.

See the PFAF Links Pages for other sources.

Also try Photos and info from the The Plants Database which has 14,000 images.

References

[K] Ken Fern
Notes from observations, tasting etc at Plants For A Future and on field trips.

[1] F. Chittendon. RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement. 1956 Oxford University Press 1951
Comprehensive listing of species and how to grow them. Somewhat outdated, it has been replaces in 1992 by a new dictionary (see [200]).

[4] Grieve. A Modern Herbal. Penguin 1984 ISBN 0-14-046-440-9
Not so modern (1930's?) but lots of information, mainly temperate plants.

[6] Mabey. R. Plants with a Purpose. Fontana 1979 ISBN 0-00-635555-2
Details on some of the useful wild plants of Britain. Poor on pictures but otherwise very good.

[7] Chiej. R. Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants. MacDonald 1984 ISBN 0-356-10541-5
Covers plants growing in Europe. Also gives other interesting information on the plants. Good photographs.

[9] Launert. E. Edible and Medicinal Plants. Hamlyn 1981 ISBN 0-600-37216-2
Covers plants in Europe. a drawing of each plant, quite a bit of interesting information.

[10] Altmann. H. Poisonous Plants and Animals. Chatto and Windus 1980 ISBN 0-7011-2526-8
A small book, reasonable but not very detailed.

[11] Bean. W. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in Great Britain. Vol 1 - 4 and Supplement. Murray 1981
A classic with a wealth of information on the plants, but poor on pictures.

[17] Clapham, Tootin and Warburg. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press 1962
A very comprehensive flora, the standard reference book but it has no pictures.

[21] Lust. J. The Herb Book. Bantam books 1983 ISBN 0-553-23827-2
Lots of information tightly crammed into a fairly small book.

[28] Knight. F. P. Plants for Shade. Royal Horticultural Society. 1980 ISBN 0-900629-78-9
A small but informative booklet listing plants that can be grown in shady positions with a few cultivation details.

[29] Shepherd. F.W. Hedges and Screens. Royal Horticultural Society. 1974 ISBN 0900629649
A small but informative booklet giving details of all the hedging plants being grown in the R.H.S. gardens at Wisley in Surrey.

[31] Brown. Shade Plants for Garden and Woodland.

[46] Uphof. J. C. Th. Dictionary of Economic Plants. Weinheim 1959
An excellent and very comprehensive guide but it only gives very short descriptions of the uses without any details of how to utilize the plants. Not for the casual reader.

[61] Usher. G. A Dictionary of Plants Used by Man. Constable 1974 ISBN 0094579202
Forget the sexist title, this is one of the best books on the subject. Lists a very extensive range of useful plants from around the world with very brief details of the uses. Not for the casual reader.

[65] Frohne. D. and Pf�nder. J. A Colour Atlas of Poisonous Plants. Wolfe 1984 ISBN 0723408394
Brilliant. Goes into technical details but in a very readable way. The best work on the subject that I've come across so far.

[75] Rosewarne experimental horticultural station. Shelter Trees and Hedges. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food 1984
A small booklet packed with information on trees and shrubs for hedging and shelterbelts in exposed maritime areas.

[76] Cooper. M. and Johnson. A. Poisonous Plants in Britain and their Effects on Animals and Man. HMSO 1984 ISBN 0112425291
Concentrates mainly on the effects of poisonous plants to livestock.

[78] Sheat. W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. MacMillan and Co 1948
A bit dated but a good book on propagation techniques with specific details for a wide range of plants.

[80] McMillan-Browse. P. Hardy Woody Plants from Seed. Grower Books 1985 ISBN 0-901361-21-6
Does not deal with many species but it is very comprehensive on those that it does cover. Not for casual reading.

[108] International Bee Research Association. Garden Plants Valuable to Bees. International Bee Research Association. 1981
The title says it all.

[115] Johnson. C. P. The Useful Plants of Great Britain.
Written about a hundred years ago, but still a very good guide to the useful plants of Britain.

[182] Thomas. G. S. Ornamental Shrubs, Climbers and Bamboos. Murray 1992 ISBN 0-7195-5043-2
Contains a wide range of plants with a brief description, mainly of their ornamental value but also usually of cultivation details and varieties.

[184] Phillips. R. & Rix. M. Shrubs. Pan Books 1989 ISBN 0-330-30258-2
Excellent photographs and a terse description of 1900 species and cultivars.

[186] Beckett. G. and K. Planting Native Trees and Shrubs. Jarrold 1979
An excellent guide to native British trees and shrubs with lots of details about the plants.

[188] Brickell. C. The RHS Gardener's Encyclopedia of Plants and Flowers Dorling Kindersley Publishers Ltd. 1990 ISBN 0-86318-386-7
Excellent range of photographs, some cultivation details but very little information on plant uses.

[200] Huxley. A. The New RHS Dictionary of Gardening. 1992. MacMillan Press 1992 ISBN 0-333-47494-5
Excellent and very comprehensive, though it contains a number of silly mistakes. Readable yet also very detailed.

[208] Thomas. G. S. Plants for Ground Cover J. M. Dent & Sons 1990 ISBN 0-460-12609-1
An excellent detailled book on the subject, very comprehensive.

[209] Chancellor. P. M. Handbook of the Bach Flower Remedies C. W. Daniel Co. Ltd. 1985 ISBN 85207 002 0
Details the 38 remedies plus how and where to prescribe them.

[229] Elias. T. The Complete Trees of N. America. Field Guide and Natural History. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co. 1980 ISBN 0442238622
A very good concise guide. Gives habitats, good descriptions, maps showing distribution and a few of the uses. It also includes the many shrubs that occasionally reach tree proportions.

[238] Bown. D. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-020-31
A very well presented and informative book on herbs from around the globe. Plenty in it for both the casual reader and the serious student. Just one main quibble is the silly way of having two separate entries for each plant.

[245] Genders. R. Scented Flora of the World. Robert Hale. London. 1994 ISBN 0-7090-5440-8
An excellent, comprehensive book on scented plants giving a few other plant uses and brief cultivation details. There are no illustrations.

[254] Chevallier. A. The Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants Dorling Kindersley. London 1996 ISBN 9-780751-303148
An excellent guide to over 500 of the more well known medicinal herbs from around the world.

Readers Comments

Ilex aquifolium

David Nicholls (Davidni@xtra.co.nz) Sat Aug 18 04:50:04 2001

It is interesting that the leaf contains theobromine (in cocoa,similar to caffine)(Potters New Cyclopaedea of Botanical Drus and Preparations. R.C.Wren). and that theobromine can be commercially converted into caffeine by methylation with methyl chloride in presence of caustic soda (Encyclopaedia Britannica 1:603 1976). Perhaps this could be a way for 1st world, cold, temperate climates to get their caffine fix without having to have third world nations do all that cheap labor for them. I dont know much about chemistry and am only pointing it out, no idea how much expertise required, interested to hear from anyone who does.

This plant may also recover after a fire.(D.Heinjus Farm Tree Planting 1992)

Details of Growing Condition: Fairly common wild here in New Zealand.

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